From the mid-second century, the Byzantine Empire found itself under constant attack. Nomadic tribes like the Pechenegs and Cumans raided from the north, destabilizing its borders. Then, in 1071, disaster struck at the Battle of Manzikert, where the Seljuk Turks inflicted a humiliating defeat. This battle marked a turning point, exposing the empire’s vulnerabilities and forcing it to seek help from the West.
Under the reign of increasingly ineffective English monarchs, the power of the lords grew unchecked, leading to a period of feudal disarray. The monarchy, weakened by internal strife, struggled to maintain control. However, King Henry II, recognizing the need to rein in the barons, turned to a growing source of power: the urban bourgeoisie. By aligning with the burghers, he effectively restricted the power of the landholding aristocracy. Henry's strategy involved strengthening towns, granting them increased rights, and curbing the judicial authority of the lords. His legal reforms were aimed at consolidating royal power, and one of his most significant changes was the introduction of the jury trial within the royal courts, which served as both a tool for justice and a means of generating income.
When Philip VI of France ascended the throne in 1328, it wasn’t just a domestic matter—it ignited a broader European struggle. Edward III of England, claiming his right as the grandson of Philip IV of France, also sought the crown. The French, naturally, rejected this challenge, but the English were determined. They launched a war that would last a century, forever altering the course of European history. In 1346, at the Battle of Crécy, the English achieved a striking victory. Their lighter, more mobile infantry outclassed the heavily armored French knights, highlighting a fundamental shift in warfare. For the English, it was a triumph of technology and tactics over tradition, and the loss for France was severe—both in terms of morale and manpower.
When Charles the Bald inherited the kingdom of Francia from his father, Louis the Pious, his primary challenge was to hold together an empire on the brink of fragmentation. To maintain control, he distributed vast swaths of land to his vassals. This practice, which became characteristic of France for several generations, inadvertently weakened the monarchy. With power decentralized, kings found themselves embroiled in constant struggles for their own territories, as local lords, or barons, increasingly held sway over their domains.
Louis IX, or Saint Louis, succeeded Philip Augustus as King of France in the mid-13th century, a time when the world was on the brink of monumental change. His reign, marked by a deep religiosity, was not only a period of consolidation within France but also an attempt to project French power beyond its borders. Like many monarchs before him, Louis understood that true authority in an expanding world was not just based on control over land, but also the ability to shape global events and alliances.