What was the Western Schism and what caused it?

The history of Western Europe in the late Middle Ages was not merely a tale of kings and battles but also one of profound fractures in the spiritual and political order. Among the most significant of these were the schisms that divided Christendom. While the Great Schism of 1054 split the Eastern and Western Churches, the Western Schism—a conflict within the Catholic Church itself—revealed how deeply entangled religion and politics had become.

A King, a Pope, and a Taxing Problem

The roots of the Western Schism lay not in theology but in the earthly matter of money. Philip IV of France, known for his ambitious campaigns, faced mounting expenses, particularly in Flanders. The solution, as far as he was concerned, was simple: tax the Church. Yet Pope Boniface VIII, viewing such taxation as a direct assault on the Church's sovereignty, refused to comply. Their conflict escalated into open hostility, with Boniface declaring the supremacy of the papacy over temporal rulers.

Philip’s response was audacious. Not only did he disregard the Pope’s proclamations, but he also orchestrated an unprecedented assault on Boniface VIII, known as the Outrage at Anagni in 1303, where the Pope was briefly arrested and humiliated. Though Boniface VIII was not sent to Avignon, his death shortly afterward marked a turning point in the power dynamics of Christendom. Under Philip’s influence, the papacy moved to Avignon during the reign of Pope Clement V in 1309. Avignon, as it turned out, offered more than just political convenience. Over time, the papacy became entrenched there, with subsequent popes deciding to remain. This period, often referred to as the “Babylonian Captivity” of the Church, marked a profound shift in the perception of papal authority, as the papacy was seen as increasingly subservient to French interests.

A Tale of Two Popes

After over fifty years in Avignon, the papacy sought to return to Rome. Yet the transition was anything but smooth. In 1378, under pressure from the Roman mob, the cardinals elected a Roman pope, Urban VI. His abrasive leadership quickly alienated many within the Church, prompting a faction of cardinals to declare his election invalid. They retreated to Avignon and elected their own pope, Clement VII.

For decades, Christendom was divided, with rival popes in Rome and Avignon each claiming legitimacy. The schism was not merely a religious crisis but a political one, as European rulers aligned themselves with one pope or the other based on their own interests.

The Failed Resolution at Pisa

Efforts to resolve the crisis only deepened it. In 1409, the Council of Pisa attempted to end the schism by deposing both the Roman and Avignon popes and electing a new one, Alexander V. Instead of solving the issue, this move created a three-pope situation, as neither of the deposed popes relinquished their claims. The Church’s unity seemed further from reach than ever.

Sigismund and the Council of Constance

The eventual resolution came not from the Church alone but through the intervention of secular power. Sigismund of Luxembourg, the King of Hungary and Holy Roman Emperor, convened the Council of Constance (1414–1418). This council not only deposed the three rival popes but also elected a single pope, Martin V, in 1417, effectively ending the schism.

Perhaps more significant than the election of Martin V was the council’s declaration that Church councils held authority over the papacy—a revolutionary idea championed by thinkers like Marsilius of Padua. While this conciliar movement would ultimately fade, it represented a radical reimagining of Church governance, one that challenged centuries of papal supremacy.

Reflections on Power and Fragmentation

The Western Schism was not merely a battle over ecclesiastical authority; it was a mirror reflecting the fragmented nature of late medieval Europe. The Church, once the unifying force of Christendom, had become a stage for political rivalries and personal ambitions. Kings and popes alike saw the sacred as a tool for the profane, and the boundaries between spiritual and temporal power blurred.

Yet within this chaos lay the seeds of transformation. The schism exposed the vulnerabilities of centralized authority, whether papal or royal, and set the stage for the Reformation and the rise of nation-states. Like all great fractures, it was both an ending and a beginning, reshaping the world in ways its participants could scarcely have imagined.