How Did Charlemagne’s Ambitions Reshape Europe?

At the heart of Charlemagne's (or Charles the Great’s) ambitions was a singular vision: to restore the Roman Empire and solidify his own rule as the rightful successor to the Caesars. His first military campaign was aimed at Spain, where he sought to drive back the Arabs, but his efforts proved unsuccessful. However, Charlemagne’s military prowess was not to be underestimated. He turned his attention to the Avarians, defeating them and securing his empire's eastern borders. Then, he faced the rebellious Saxons, forcing them into submission and imposing Christianity upon them—a monumental task that would shape the religious landscape of Europe for centuries. Charlemagne’s successes culminated in his victory over the Lombards, and in 800, he received the imperial crown from Pope Leo III. This momentous event had two key consequences: it introduced a new system in which the Pope crowned kings, and it served to create a deeper rift between Rome and Byzantium.

Now, as a ruler of a vast and diverse realm, Charlemagne had to ensure that his empire functioned smoothly. To achieve this, he implemented a system of governance that included the creation of counties and marks. Counties were administrative regions governed by counts, who were responsible for overseeing the management of land and justice within their territories. Marks, on the other hand, were established at the borders of the empire and were governed by marquises, tasked with defending the empire’s frontiers. This system helped Charlemagne maintain order across the expansive territory, but it also required an efficient means of supervision.

To ensure that his decrees were being carried out properly, Charlemagne appointed special royal officers called missi dominici. These envoys traveled across the empire, visiting the counties and marks to monitor the activities of the local rulers, check on the implementation of royal policies, and report directly back to Charlemagne. This system of oversight was crucial in maintaining the cohesion of his empire, especially as it grew more complex.

However, Charlemagne’s empire was not without its flaws. One of the key factors that led to the weakening of his realm was the introduction of the feudal system. As the king granted lands and titles to his vassals in exchange for loyalty, a new hierarchy emerged within the empire. The landlords beneath Charlemagne became vassals themselves, forming a network of dependencies that extended throughout the kingdom. This system, while effective in the short term, contributed to the fracturing of royal power and created a growing number of powerful landholders who began to weaken the central authority of the empire.

Upon Charlemagne’s death, his son, Louis the Pious, inherited the empire, but he was unable to maintain the unity that his father had achieved. The empire began to crumble under the pressure of internal divisions. In 843, following Louis’s death, the empire was divided among Charlemagne’s three grandsons in the Treaty of Verdun. Lothar received Lotharingia (a region stretching from the North Sea to Italy), Charles the Bald received West Francia (modern-day France), and Louis the German received East Francia (modern-day Germany). This division marked the end of Charlemagne’s united empire and the beginning of the fragmentation that would shape Europe for centuries.