Who Held the Real Power: Popes or Emperors?

The events of the 11th to 13th centuries were deeply intertwined with the power struggles between popes and emperors. At the heart of this conflict lay some of Europe’s wealthiest regions: the cities of Italy. The German emperors aspired to create a centralized monarchy in Central Europe, while the popes sought to consolidate their secular and spiritual authority in Italy. The emperors’ ambitions ultimately failed, leaving Germany fragmented into a patchwork of feudal territories, while the popes’ dominance in Italy proved to be fleeting. But what were the roots of these struggles?

One must look back to the growing tensions between Eastern and Western Christianity. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476, the Bishop of Constantinople—the Patriarch—attempted to extend his influence into the western territories. This rivalry between the Patriarch and the Bishop of Rome (the Pope) escalated, culminating in the Great Schism of 1054. Christianity formally split into the Western (Roman Catholic) Church and the Eastern (Orthodox) Church. In truth, however, the driving force behind these divisions was less about theological differences than power. Broadly speaking, the Church functioned as an institution for maintaining control.

The Holy Roman Empire, which emerged from the remnants of the Carolingian Empire, consisted of German duchies such as Saxony, Franconia, and Swabia. Initially, royal authority was weak, forcing the kings to rely on alliances with high-ranking clergy in their struggles against the powerful dukes. Otto I, crowned emperor in 962, conquered Italy and secured his coronation as emperor. His successor, Otto III (r. 983–1002), dreamed of reviving the Roman Empire with Rome as its center. However, his plans failed due to local resistance—a recurring theme throughout history, as many rulers sought to emulate the glory of ancient Rome.

Henry III (r. 1039–1056) ushered in a golden age for the Holy Roman Empire. Even the kings of Poland, Bohemia, and Hungary recognized his suzerainty, and he strengthened German control over Italy. However, Henry’s assertion of the right to appoint bishops—known as lay investiture—brought him into conflict with the papacy.

This conflict escalated under Pope Gregory VII (r. 1073–1085), a champion of the Cluniac Reform movement. Gregory sought to reinforce the Church’s independence and authority, banning simony (the sale of church offices) and enforcing clerical celibacy. His reforms clashed with imperial interests, setting the stage for the Investiture Controversy, a prolonged and bitter struggle over the balance of power between Church and state.

Sources:

• Brett Edward Whalen, The Two Powers: The Papacy, the Empire, and the Struggle for Sovereignty in the Thirteenth Century, 2019.
• David Abulafia, Frederick II: A Medieval Emperor, 1992.
• John Julius Norwich, Absolute Monarchs: A History of the Papacy, 2011.
• Paul Collins, The Birth of the West: Rome, Germany, France, and the Creation of Europe in the Tenth Century, 2013.
• Thomas F. Madden, The New Concise History of the Crusades, 2005.