How Did Latin American Nations Gain Independence and Struggle to Build Stable States?

In 1816, Simón Bolívar, with Haitian support, began liberating Venezuela with help from freed slaves and local herders. By 1818, he had declared Venezuela independent again and moved on to liberate neighboring regions, aiming to create a federation. He succeeded in forming Gran Colombia and became its president in 1820. Meanwhile, José de San Martín crossed the Andes in 1817 to aid Chile and Peru’s fight for freedom.

By the late 1810s, Spain could no longer support its colonial armies, and in 1820, a military uprising in Cádiz marked Spain’s second liberal revolution, which further weakened Spanish control in the Americas.

In 1820, San Martín began freeing Peru from the south, while Bolívar’s general Sucre captured Ecuador. Bolívar and San Martín met in 1822, but due to disagreements, San Martín stepped aside and left for Europe. Bolívar completed the liberation of South America by defeating the last Spanish forces in 1824.

In Mexico, independence was more influenced by Spanish events. After a brutal campaign against rebels (1815–1819), the 1820 Spanish liberal revolution alarmed conservative elites and the Church. Fearing liberal reforms, they supported separation from Spain. Agustín Iturbide, a former royalist commander, allied with rebels and declared independence in 1821.

Post-independence Mexico faced deep political instability. From 1821 to 1854, the country saw an empire, dictatorship, two federal and two conservative governments, five constitutions, and two wars. One ended in French demands for compensation (1838), and the other (1846–48) cost Mexico half its territory to the United States.

Throughout Latin America, military coups became common. Civil wars had expanded armies, and now officers sought political power. In many young nations, the army was the most organized force, giving it a strong role in political life.