What Was Roman Society Like in the 2nd Century?

In the 2nd century, Roman society was divided into clear social classes, with some people enjoying many privileges and others living much harder lives.

At the top of society were two important groups: the senators and the equestrians. To become a senator, a person had to be very rich — owning at least one million sestertii — and had to be approved by the emperor. To become an equestrian, a person needed 400,000 sestertii and also the emperor’s approval. While equestrians had once been mostly wealthy businessmen, by the 2nd century they were more often lawyers, military commanders, and imperial officials.

A third important group rose during this time, called the curiales. These were members of the city councils that helped govern towns and cities. They managed things like local finances and, after finishing their time in office, they were often rewarded with Roman citizenship.

These three groups — senators, equestrians, and curiales — made up what was called the imperial aristocracy, or the honestiores, meaning "the respectable ones." They had many legal advantages. For example, they could appeal directly to the emperor if they were accused of a crime, and they couldn’t be tortured or physically punished.

Below them were the free commoners, called the humiliores, which means "the lowborn." This group was much larger and had far fewer privileges.

Among the free commoners were the Roman plebs, or city people, who still received some benefits. Although they no longer had real political power, the emperors gave them free bread and entertainment (known as "bread and circuses") to keep them happy and prevent unrest. Still, many plebs had to work to survive, since the state didn’t provide for all their needs.

Another part of the common people were artisans and craftspeople living in small towns. Their situation was even more difficult. To support one another, they began forming associations called collegia, which were like clubs for mutual help, job support, and even organizing funerals. At first, the government didn’t like these groups, but later, some of them became officially accepted — especially those that helped with public services.

At the very bottom of the free population were the small farmers and tenant farmers, known as coloni. They either worked on their own small plots or rented land from big estates. Life was hard for them, and they didn’t really benefit from the empire’s wealth and growth. Whether they owned land or rented it, they still had to carry the heavy responsibilities of paying taxes and supporting the state.

Lastly, there were the slaves, the lowest group in Roman society. By the 2nd century, there were fewer slaves than before, but their legal conditions improved. New laws gave them some protection, and it became common for loyal slaves to be freed after years of service.