How Did Latin American Nations Gain Independence and Struggle to Build Stable States?

In 1816, Simón Bolívar, with Haitian support, began liberating Venezuela with help from freed slaves and local herders. By 1818, he had declared Venezuela independent again and moved on to liberate neighboring regions, aiming to create a federation. He succeeded in forming Gran Colombia and became its president in 1820. Meanwhile, José de San Martín crossed the Andes in 1817 to aid Chile and Peru’s fight for freedom.

Was There Real Parliamentary Rule “Beyond the Leitha”?

Although Hungary had a constitutional system after the 1867 Compromise, its parliamentary democracy was limited and flawed. Due to wealth-based voting rights, the king’s strong powers, and conservative traditions, only parties loyal to the Compromise could realistically govern without threatening the system’s collapse. The political scene thus revolved around acceptance or rejection of the Compromise, but opposition parties had no real path to power and eventually tired of the endless struggle, leading to public resignation and political apathy. Criticism of the monarchy remained mostly private, while symbolic support for both the king and the 1848 revolution coexisted on household walls, creating a kind of national split identity that discouraged modern political thinking.

How Did Hungary Turn the Tide Against the Habsburgs in the Winter and Spring of 1849?

In early January 1849, Hungarian military leaders planned strategic troop movements: Perczel moved east to protect the government, while Görgey headed north to divert imperial forces. Despite having only about 16,000 men, Görgey’s Upper Danube corps faced much stronger Austrian troops. 

How Did the First World War End?

By 1917, the First World War had been going on for three long years, and things were starting to change quickly. In 1917, Russia tried one last major attack on the Eastern Front (called the Kerensky Offensive), but it failed. At the same time, the country was going through serious internal problems — a revolution had started. Because of this, Russia decided to leave the war and signed a peace treaty with Germany in March 1918. This was called the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, and it officially ended the fighting between Russia and the Central Powers on the Eastern Front.